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Vedas and Upanishads |
The oldest literature of Indian thought is the Veda, a collection of
religious and philisophical poems and hymns composed over several generations beginning as
early as 3000 BC. The Veda was composed in Sanskrit, the intellectual language of both
ancient and classical Indian civilizations. Four collections were made, so it is said that
there are four Vedas. The four as a group came to be viewed as sacred in Hinduism.
Some Vedic hymns and poems address philosophic themes, such as the henotheism
that is key to much Hindu
theology.
Henotheism is the idea that one God takes many different forms, and that although
individuals may worship several different gods and goddesses, they really revere but one
Supreme Being.
There
are four Vedas:
The Rig-Veda
Its traditional date goes back to 3000 BC, something which the German scholar Max Mueller
accepted. As a body of writing, the Rig-Veda (the wisdom of verses) is nothing short of
remarkable. It contains 1028 hymns (10,589 verses which are divided into ten mandalas or
book-sections) dedicated to thirty-three different gods. The most often addressed gods
were nature gods like Indra (rain god; king of heavens), Agni (fire god), Rudra (storm
god; the 'howler'), Soma (the draught of immortality, an alcoholic brew).
The Sama-Veda
The Sama-Veda or the wisdom of chants is basically a collection of samans or
chants, derived from the eighth and ninth books of the Rig-Veda. These were meant for the
priests who officiated at the rituals of the soma ceremonies. There are painstaking
instructions in Sama-Veda about how particular hymns must be sung; to put great emphasis
upon sounds of the words of the mantras and the effect they could have on the environment
and the person who pronounced them.
The Yajur-Veda
The Yajur-Veda or the wisdom of sacrifices lays down various sacred invocations
(yajurs) which were chanted by a particular sect of priests called adhvaryu. They
performed the sacrificial rites. The Veda also outlines various chants which should be
sung to pray and pay respects to the various instruments which are involved in the
sacrifice.
The Atharva-Veda
The Atharva-Veda (the wisdom of the Atharvans) is called so because the families of the
atharvan sect of the Brahmins have traditionally been credited with the composition of the
Vedas. It is a compilation of hymns but lacks the awesome grandeur which makes the
Rig-Veda such a breathtaking spiritual experience.
Upanishads
The
term Upanishad ('upa' near; 'ni' down; 'sad' to sit) means sitting down near; this implies
the students sitting down near their Guru to learn the big secret. In the splendid
isolation of their forest abodes, the philosophers who composed the Upanishads
contemplated upon the various mysteries of life and its creation – whether common, or
metaphysical. The answers were however not open to all, but only for select students. The
reason for this was simple: not everyone can handle knowledge.
The
composition of the Upanishads marks a significant and stride forward in the direction of
knowing the mystery of earth's creation and one comes tantalizingly close to the answers.
Through episodes, commentaries, stories, traditions and dialogue, the Upanishads unfold
the fascinating tale of creation, life, the essence of life and of that beyond to the
seeker of truth.
There
is no exact date for the composition of the Upanishads. They continued to be composed over
a long period, the core being over 7th -5th centuries BC. The Upanishads were originally
called Vedanta, which literally means the conclusion to the Vedas.
In the
Upanishads, views about Brahman (the Absolute, or God) and atman (one's true self) were
proposed.
There
are 18 principal Upanishads viz:
Brhad-aranyaka Upanishad
The Brhad-aranyaka Upanishad is widely accepted to be the most important of all
Upanishads. It has three khandas or parts. The madhu khanda contemplates on the
relationship between the individual and the Universal self. The muni khanda or yajnavalkya
is a debate which goes on to give the philosophical backing to the earlier teaching. The
khila khanda tackles various rituals of worship and meditation.
Chandogya Upanishad
This Upanishad is a part of the Sama-Veda (see The Vedas). The name comes from
the singer of the songs (samans) who is called Chandoga. The initial chapters of the
Upanishad, discuss the ritual of sacrifice. The others debate the origin and profundity of
the concept of Om, among other things.
Aitareya Upanishad
This one forms part of the Rig-Veda. The purpose is to make the reader understand
the deeper meaning of sacrifice and to take him away from the outer trappings of the
actual act.
Taittriya Upanishad
A part of the Yajur-Veda, this Upanishad is divided into three sections or
vallis. The siksa valli deals with the phonetics of the chants, while the others,
brahmananda valli and bhrgu valli deal with self-realization.
Isa Upanishad
Also called the Isavasya Upanishad, this book deals with the union of God, the
world, being and becoming. The stress is on the Absolute in relation with the world
(paramesvara). The gist of the teachings is that a person's worldly and otherworldly goals
need not necessarily be opposed to each other.
Kena Upanishad
The name of this Upanishad comes from the first word kena, or by whom. It has two
sections of prose and two of poetry. The verses deal with the supreme spirit or the
absolute principle (brahmaana) and the prose talks of ishvara (god). The moral of the
story is that the knowledge of ishvara reveals the way to self-realization.
Katha Upanishad
Also called the Kathakopanishad, this Upanishad uses a story (katha) involving a
young Brahmin boy called Nachiketa to reveal the truths of this world and the other beyond
the veil.
Prashna Upanishad
Prashna literally means question, and this book is part of the Athrava-Veda. It
addresses questions pertaining to the ultimate cause, the power of Om, relation of the
supreme to the constituents of the world.
Mundaka Upanishad
This book also belongs to the Atharva-Veda. The name is derived from 'mund' or to
shave, meaning that anyone who understands the Upanishads is s(h)aved from ignorance. This
book inscribes the importance of knowing the supreme brahmaana, only by which knowledge
can one attain self-realization.
Mandukya Upanishad
The Mandukya is an exquisite treatise which expounds on the principle of Om and
its metaphysical significance in various states of being, waking, dream and the dreamless
sleep. The subtlest and most profound of the Upanishads, it is said that this alone will
lead one to the path of enlightenment.
Svetasvatara Upanishad
The name of this Upanishad is after its teacher. It comments on the unity of the
souls and the world in one all-encompassing reality. The concept of there being one god is
also talked about here. It is dedicated to Rudra, the storm god.
Kausitaki Brahmana Upanishad
The Upanishad has come down to us in bits here and pieces there. The core of the
text is dedicated to illustrating the fact that the path to release is through knowledge.
Maitri Upanishad
This is a comparatively later Upanishad as it has references to the Trinity of
Hindu Gods (Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma) which is a later development, and plus references to
the world being illusory in character reflects Buddhist influence.
Subala Upanishad
Belonging to the Yajur-Veda, this Upanishad puts down a dialogue between the sage
Subala and Brahma the creator of the Hindu Trinity of Gods. It discusses the universe and
the absolute.
Jabala Upanishad
Belonging to the Athrava-Veda this Upanishad addresses some questions pertaining
to renunciation.
Paingala Upanishad
The Paingala is again a dialog, this between Yajnavalkya, the sage mentioned the
Brhad-aranyaka's muni khanda and Paingala, a student of his. It discusses meditation and
its effects.
Kaivalya Upanishad
This Upanishad delves into the state of kaivalya or being alone.
Vajrasucika Upanishad
Belonging to the Sama-Veda the Vajrasucika reflects on the nature of the supreme being.
The
core of the teachings of the Upanishads is summed up in three words: tat tvam as… you
are that.
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